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英语语法大全

名词

  名词可以分为专有名词(Proper Nouns)和普通名词
(Common
Nouns),专有名词是某个(些)人,地方,机构等专有的名称,如Beijing,China等。普通名词是一类人或东西或是一个抽象概念的名词,如:book,sadness等。普通名词又可分为下面四类:
 
1)个体名词(Individual Nouns):表示某类人或东西中的个体,如:gun。
  2)集体名词(Collective
Nouns):表示若干个个体组成的集合体,如:family。
  3)物质名词(Material
Nouns):表示无法分为个体的实物,如:air。
  4)抽象名词(Abstract
Nouns):表示动作、状态、品质、感情等抽象概念,如:work。
个体名词和集体名词可以用数目来计算,称为可数名词(Countable
Nouns),物质名词和抽象名词一般无法用数目计算,称为不可数名词(Uncountable
Nouns)。归纳一下,名词的分类可以下图表示:
 
_______________________________________
 |  |专有名词 |            |
 |
名 |     | 个体名词  |      |
 |  |     |      | 可数名词 |
 |  |     | 集体名词 
|      |
 |  |普通名词 |      |      |
 | 词 |     | 物质名词  |     
|
 |  |     |      | 不可数名词|
 |  |     | 抽象名词  |    
 |


.1 名词复数的规则变化

___________________________________________________
 情况  
构成方法  
读音    例词
__________________________________________________
一般情况   加 -s 
1.清辅音后读/s/;  map-maps
           2.浊辅音和元音后  bag-bags
            读
/z/;     car-cars
___________________________________________________  
以s,sh,ch,
x等结尾的词  加
-es  读 /iz/    bus-buses
                   watch-watches
___________________________________________________
以ce,se,ze,
(d)ge等结尾
的词     
加 -s  读
/iz/  license-licenses
___________________________________________________
以辅音字母+y 
变y 为i
结尾的词    再加es  读
/z/   baby---babies
___________________________________________________


2 其它名词复数的规则变化

    
1) 以y结尾的专有名词,或元音字母+y
结尾的名词变复数时,直接加s变复数: 
  如: two Marys     the Henrys
    
monkey---monkeys holiday---holidays  
 比较: 层楼:storey ---storeys 
story---stories
2) 以o 结尾的名词,变复数时:
  a. 加s,如:
photo---photos  piano---pianos
         radio---radios  zoo---zoos;
  b.
加es,如:potato--potatoes tomato--tomatoes
  c. 均可,如:zero---zeros / zeroes 
3) 以f或fe 结尾的名词变复数时:
  a. 加s,如:
belief---beliefs roof---roofs
         safe---safes  gulf---gulfs;
  b.
去f,fe
加ves,如:half---halves  
   knife---knives leaf---leaves wolf---wolves
   wife---wives life---lives thief---thieves;
  c.
均可,如: handkerchief:
        handkerchiefs / handkerchieves

3 名词复数的不规则变化

1)child---children foot---feet tooth---teeth
  mouse---mice   man---men 
woman---women 
注意:与 man 和 woman构成的合成词,其复数形式也是 -men 和-women。
 如: an
Englishman,two Englishmen. 但German不是合成词,故复数形式为Germans;Bowman是姓,其复数是the
Bowmans。
2)单复同形 如:
  deer,sheep,fish,Chinese,Japanese
  li,jin,yuan,two li,three mu,four
jin 
  但除人民币元、角、分外,美元、英镑、法郎等都有复数形式。如:
a dollar, two dollars;  a meter, two
meters
  3)集体名词,以单数形式出现,但实为复数。
   如: people police cattle
等本身就是复数,不能说 a people,a police,a cattle,但可以说
a person,a policeman,a head of
cattle,the English,the British,the French,the Chinese,the Japanese,the Swiss
等名词,表示国民总称时,作复数用。
   如: The Chinese are industries and
brave. 中国人民是勤劳勇敢的。
  4)以s结尾,仍为单数的名词,如:
   a.
maths,politics,physics等学科名词,为不可数名词,是单数。
   b. news 是不可数名词。
   c. the
United States,the United Nations 应视为单数。
   The United Nations was organized
in 1945. 联合国是1945年组建起来的。
   d. 以复数形式出现的书名,剧名,报纸,杂志名,也可视为单数。
   "The
Arabian Nights" is a very interesting story-book.
   >是一本非常有趣的故事书。
  5) 表示由两部分构成的东西,如:glasses
(眼镜) trousers, clothes
    若表达具体数目,要借助数量词 pair(对,双); suit(套); a pair of
glasses; two pairs of trousers
  
  6)
另外还有一些名词,其复数形式有时可表示特别意思,如:goods货物,waters水域,fishes(各种)鱼                          


4 不可数名词量的表示

1)物质名词
  a.
当物质名词转化为个体名词时。
    比较: Cake is a kind of food. 蛋糕是一种食物。 (不可数)
       These
cakes are sweet. 这些蛋糕很好吃。 (可数)
  b. 当物质名词表示该物质的种类时,名词可数。
   This factory
produces steel. (不可数)
   We need various steels. (可数)
  c.
当物质名词表示份数时,可数。
   Our country is famous for tea.
   我国因茶叶而闻名。
   Two
teas, please.
   请来两杯茶。
2) 抽象名词有时也可数。
  four freedoms 四大自由
  the four modernizations四个现代化
  物质名词和抽象名词可以借助单位词表一定的数量。
  如:
  a
glass of water 一杯水 
  a piece of advice 一条建议


5 定语名词的复数

名词作定语一般用单数,但也有以下例外。
 1)
用复数作定语。
   如:sports meeting 运动会
     students reading-room 学生阅览室 
     talks table 谈判桌 
     the foreign languages department 外语系
 2) man, woman, gentleman等作定语时,其单复数以所修饰的名词的单复数而定。
   如:men
workers  women teachers  
     gentlemen officials
 3)
有些原有s结尾的名词,作定语时,s保留。
   如:goods train (货车)
     arms produce 武器生产
    
customs papers 海关文件
     clothes brush衣刷
 4)
数词+名词作定语时,这个名词一般保留单数形式。
   如:two-dozen eggs 两打/(二十四个鸡蛋) 
     a ten-mile
walk 十里路 
     two-hundred trees 两百棵树
     a five-year plan. 一个五年计划
  
个别的有用复数作定语的,如: a seven-years child


5 定语名词的复数

名词作定语一般用单数,但也有以下例外。
 1)
用复数作定语。
   如:sports meeting 运动会
     students reading-room 学生阅览室 
     talks table 谈判桌 
     the foreign languages department 外语系
 2) man, woman, gentleman等作定语时,其单复数以所修饰的名词的单复数而定。
   如:men
workers  women teachers  
     gentlemen officials
 3)
有些原有s结尾的名词,作定语时,s保留。
   如:goods train (货车)
     arms produce 武器生产
    
customs papers 海关文件
     clothes brush衣刷
 4)
数词+名词作定语时,这个名词一般保留单数形式。
   如:two-dozen eggs 两打/(二十四个鸡蛋) 
     a ten-mile
walk 十里路 
     two-hundred trees 两百棵树
     a five-year plan. 一个五年计划
  
个别的有用复数作定语的,如: a seven-years child


6 不同国家的人的单复数

名称   总称(谓语用复数) 一个人  
两个人     
中国人  the Chinese   a Chinese  two Chinese
瑞士人  the Swiss    a
Swiss   two
Swiss
澳大利亚人the       an     two
     Australians   Australian Australians                 
俄国人  the Russians  a Russian  two Russians
意大利人 the Italians  an Italian 
two Italians
希腊人  the Greek    a Greek   two Greeks
法国人  the French   a
Frenchman two
                    Frenchmen
日本人  the Japanese  a Japanese 
two Japanese
美国人  the Americans an American two Americans
印度人  the
Indians  an Indian   two Indians
加拿大人 the Canadians a Canadian  two
Canadians
德国人  the Germans  a Germans  two Germans
英国人  the English  an
Englishman two
                    Englishmen
瑞典人  the Swedish  a
Swede   two Swedes    


7 名词的格

  在英语中有些名词可以加"'s"来表示所有关系,带这种词尾的名词形式称为该名词的所有格,如:a teacher's
book。名词所有格的规则如下:
 1) 单数名词词尾加"'s",复数名词词尾没有s,也要加"'s",如the boy's bag 男孩的书包,men's
room 男厕所。
 2) 若名词已有复数词尾-s ,只加"'",如:the workers' struggle 工人的斗争。
 3)
凡不能加"'s"的名词,都可以用"名词+of +名词"的结构来表示所有关系,如:the title of the song 歌的名字。
 4)
在表示店铺或教堂的名字或某人的家时,名词所有格的后面常常不出现它所修饰的名词,如:the barber's 理发店。
 5)
如果两个名词并列,并且分别有's,则表示"分别有";只有一个's,则表示'共有'。
   如:John's and Mary's
room(两间)  John and Mary's room(一间)
 6) 复合名词或短语,'s 加在最后一个词的词尾。
   如:a month
or two's absence
2.1 不定冠词的用法

  冠词是虚词,本身不能单独使用,也没有词义,它用在名词的前面,帮助指明名词的含义。英语中的冠词有三种,一种是定冠词(the
Definite Article),另一种是不定冠词(the Indefinite Article),还有一种是零冠词(Zero
Article)。
  不定冠词a (an)与数词one
同源,是"一个"的意思。a用于辅音音素前,一般读作[e],而an则用于元音音素前,一般读做[en]。
 1)
表示"一个",意为one;指某人或某物,意为a certain。
   A Mr. Ling is waiting for
you.
 2) 代表一类人或物。
   A knife is a tool for cutting with.
   Mr.
Smith is an engineer.
 3) 词组或成语。
   a little / a few / a lot / a
type of / a pile / a great many / many a / as a rule / in a hurry / in a minute
/ in a word / in a short while / after a while / have a cold / have a try / keep
an eye on / all of a sudden


2 定冠词的用法

  定冠词the与指示代词this,that同源,有"那(这)个"的意思,但较弱,可以和一个名词连用,来表示某个或某些特定的人或东西。
 1)特指双方都明白的人或物:
  
Take the medicine. 把药吃了。
 2)上文提到过的人或事:
   He bought a house. I've been to
the house.
   他买了幢房子。我去过那幢房子。
 3)指世上独一物二的事物:
  the sun, the sky, the
moon, the earth
 4)单数名词连用表示一类事物,如:the dollar 美元;
the fox
狐狸;或与形容词或分词连用,表示一类人:the rich 富人; the living 生者。
 5)用在序数词和形容词最高级,及形容词only,
very, same等前面:
   Where do you live? I live on the second floor. 
你住在哪?我住在二层。
   That's the very thing I've been looking for. 
那正是我要找的东西。
 6)与复数名词连用,指整个群体:
  They are the teachers of this
school.指全体教师)
  They are teachers of this school. 
(指部分教师)
 7)表示所有,相当于物主代词,用在表示身体部位的名词前:
  She caught me by the
arm.. 她抓住了我的手臂。
 8)用在某些由普通名词构成的国家名称、机关团体、阶级、等专有名词前:
  the People's
Republic of China  中华人民共和国
  the United States  美国
 9)用在表示乐器的名词之前:  She
plays the piano. 她会弹钢琴。
 10) 用在姓氏的复数名词之前,表示一家人:
    the Greens  格林一家人
(或格林夫妇)
 11) 用在惯用语中:
   in the day, in the morning
(afternoon,evening), the day after tomorrow 
the day before yesterday, the
next morning, 
in the sky (water,field,country) 
in the dark, in the
rain, in the distance, 
in the middle (of), in the end,
on the whole, by
the way, go to the theatre


3 零冠词的用法

 1)
国名,人名前通常不用定冠词:England,Mary;
 2)泛指的复数名词,表示一类人或事物时,可不用定冠词;
  They are
teachers. 他们是教师。
 3)抽象名词表示一般概念时,通常不加冠词;
  Failure is the mother of
success. 失败乃成功之母。
 4)物质名词表示一般概念时,通常不加冠词,当表示特定的意思时,需要加定冠词;
  Man cannot
live without water. 人离开水就无法生存。
 5)在季节、月份、节日、 假日、日期、星期等表示时间的名词之前,不加冠词;
  We
go to school from Monday to Friday. 
我们从星期一到星期五都上课。
 6)在称呼或表示官衔,职位的名词前不加冠词;
  The guards took the American to
General Lee.
  士兵们把这个美国人送到李将军那里。
 7)在三餐、球类运动和娱乐运动的名称前,不加冠词 如:have
breakfast,play chess
 8)当两个或两个以上名词并用时,常省去冠词;
  I can't write without pen
or pencil.  没有钢笔和铅笔,我就写不了字。
 9)当by 与火车等交通工具连用,表示一种方式时,中间无冠词;by bus,by train;
 10)有些个体名词不用冠词;如:
 
school,college,prison,market,hospital,bed,table,class,town,church,court
等个体名词,直接置于介词后,表示该名词的深层含义;
    go to hospital  去医院看病
    go to the
hospital  去医院 (并不是去看病,而是有其他目的)
 11)不用冠词的序数词;
 a. 序数词前有物主代词
 b. 序数词作副词 
He came first in the race.
 c. 在固定词组中  at (the) first,first of all,  from
first to last


4 冠词与形容词+名词结构

 1) 两个形容词都有冠词,表示两个不同东西。
  
He raises a black and a white cat.  他养了一只黑猫和一只白猫。
  The black and the white
cats are hers.  这只黑猫和白猫都是他的。
 2) 如后一个形容词无冠词,则指一物。
   He raises a black and
white cat.  他养了一只花猫。
  


5 冠词位置

 1)
不定冠词位置
 不定冠词常位于名词或名词修饰语前。注意: 
 a. 位于下列形容词之后: such,what,many,half,
   I
have never seen such an animal.
   Many a man is fit for the
job.
 b. 当名词前的形容词被副词as, so, too, how, however,
enough修饰时,不定冠词应放在形容词之后:
   It is as pleasant a day as I have ever
spent.
   So short a time.
   Too long a distance.
 c.
quite,rather与单数名词连用,冠词放在其后。
但当rather,quite 前仍有形容词,不定冠词放其前后均可。如:quite a lot
 d. 在as,though 引导的让步状语从句中,当标语为形容词修饰的名词时,不定冠词放形容词后:
    Brave a
man though he is,he trembles at the sight of snakes. 他尽管勇敢,可见到蛇还是发抖。
  
当名词被比较级形容词修饰时,不定冠词通常置于比较级形容词之后。
2) 定冠词位置
  定冠词通常位于名词或名词修饰语前,但放在all,
both,double,half,twice,three times等词之后,名词之前。
  All the students in the class
went out. 班里的所有学生都出去了。
 


6 数词

  表示数目多少或顺序多少的词叫数词,数词分为基数词和序数词。表示数目多少的数词叫基数词;表示顺序的数词叫序数词。
 一、基数词
  1)基数词写法和读法:
345 three hundred and forty-five;
  2)基数词一般是单数形式,但下列情况,常用复数:
   a. 与of
短语连用,表示概数,不能与具体数目连 用,如scores of people 指许多人;
   b. 在一些表示"一排"或"一组"的词组里;
 
如:They arrived in twos and threes. 他们三三两两的到达了。
   c. 表示"几十岁";
   d.
表示"年代",用 in +the +数词复数;
   e. 在乘法运算的一种表示法里,如:3 x 5 = 15 Three fives is (are)
fifteen.
 二、序数词
  序数词的缩写形式:
first---1st second---2nd thirty-first---31st 
 三、
数词的用法
  1)倍数表示法
   a. 主语+谓语+倍数(或分数)+ as + adj. + as
    I have three
times as many as you. 我有你三倍那么多。
   b. 主语+谓语+倍数(分数)+ the size
(amount,length…) of…
    The earth is 49 times the size of the
moon. 地球是月球的49倍。
   c. 主语+谓语+倍数(分数)+ 形容词(副词)比较级+ than…
   The
grain output is 8 percent higher this year than that of last year.
  
今年比去年粮食产量增加8%。
   d. 还可以用by+倍数,表示增加多少倍
   The production of grain
has been increased by four times this year.
  
今年粮食产量增加了4倍。
  2)分数表示法
  构成:基数词代表分子,序数词代表分母。分子大于1时,分子的序数词用单数,分母序数词用复数:
 
1/3 one-third ; 3/37 three and
three-sevenths.
.1 人称代词的用法

1)人称代词的主格在句子中作主语或主语补语,例如:
 
John waited a while but eventually he went home.
  约翰等了一会儿,最后他回家了。
  John
hoped the passenger would be Mary and indeed it was
she.
  约翰希望那位乘客是玛丽,还真是她。
说明:在复合句中,如果主句和从句主语相同,代词主语要用在从句中,名词主语用在主句中,例如:
 
When he arrived, John went straight to the
bank.
  约翰一到就直接去银行了。
2)人称代词的宾格在句子中作宾语或介词宾语,但在口语中也能作主语补语,第一人称在省略句中,还可以作主语,例如:
 I
saw her with them, at least, I thought it was her.
 我看到她和他们在一起,至少我认为是她。(her做宾
语,them做介词宾语,her做主语补语)
   a. -- Who broke the vase? --谁打碎了花瓶?
   b. --
Me.    --我。(me做主语补语= It's
me.)
说明:在上面两例句中,her和me分别作主语补语。现代英语中多用宾格,在正式文体中这里应为she和I。


2 人称代词之主、宾格的替换

1) 宾格代替主格
 
a.在简短对话中,当人称代词单独使用或在not 后,多用宾语。
   ---- I like English.   --我喜欢英语。
   ----
Me too.       --我也喜欢。
   ---- Have more wine?   --再来点酒喝吗?
   ---- Not
me.       --我可不要了。
  b.在表示比较的非正式的文体中,常用宾格代替主格。
但如果比较状语的谓语保留,则主语只能用主格。
    He is taller than I/me.
    He is taller than I
am.
2) 主格代替宾格
  a. 在介词but,except 后,有时可用主格代替宾格。
  b.
在电话用语中常用主格。   
    ---- I wish to speak to Mary. --我想和玛丽通话。
    ---- This
is she.       --我就是玛丽。
 注意:在动词be 或to be 后的人称代词视其前面的名词或代词而定。
    I
thought it was she.   我以为是她。      (主格----主格)
    I thought it to be
her.             (宾格----宾格)
    I was taken to be
she.  我被当成了她。    (主格----主格)
    They took me to be her. 他们把我当成了她。  
(宾格----宾格)


3 代词的指代问题

 1)不定代词
anybody,everybody,nobody,anyone, someone, everyone,no one,
及whoever和person在正式场合使用时,可用he, his, him代替。
   Nobody came, did
he? 谁也没来,是吗?
 2)动物名词的指代一般用it或they代替,有时也用he, she,带有亲切的感情色彩。
   Give
the cat some food. She is
hungry. 给这猫一些吃的。她饿了。
 3)指代车或国家,船舶的名词,含感情色彩时常用she。


4 并列人称代词的排列顺序

 1) 单数人称代词并列作主语时,其顺序为:
   
第二人称 -> 第三人称 -> 第一人称
      you -> he/she; it -> I
    You, he
and I should return on time.
 2) 复数人称代词作主语时,其顺序为:
    第一人称 -> 第二人称
-> 第三人称
      we -> you   -> They
注意: 在下列情况中,第一人称放在前面。
   a.
在承认错误,承担责任时,
     It was I and John that made her angry.
    
是我和约翰惹她生气了。
   b. 在长辈对晚辈,长官对下属说话时,如长官为第一人称, 如:I and you try to finish
it.
   c. 并列主语只有第一人称和第三人称时,
   d.
当其他人称代词或名词被定语从句修饰时。


5 物主代词

 
 1)物主代词既有表示所属的作用又有指代作用,例如:
   John had cut his finger;
apparently there was a broken glass on his desk.
 
约翰割破了手指,显而易见,他桌子上有个破玻璃杯。
  物主代词有形容词性(my, your等)和名词性(mine,
yours等)两种,形容词性的物主代词属于限定词。
  名词性的物主代词在用法上相当于省略了中心名词的 --'s属格结构,例如:
   Jack's
cap  意为   The cap is Jack's.
   His cap   意为   The cap is his.
 2)
名词性物主代词的句法功能
  a. 作主语,例如:
   May I use your pen? Yours works
better.
   我可以用一用你的钢笔吗? 你的比我的好用。
  
  b. 作宾语,例如:
   I love my
motherland as much as you love yours.
   我爱我的祖国就像你爱你的祖国一样深。
  
  c.
作介词宾语,例如:
   Your should interpret what I said in my sense of the word, not
in yours.
   你应当按我所用的词义去解释我说的话,而不能按你自己的意义去解释。
  d.
作主语补语,例如:
    The life I have is yours. It's yours. It's
yours. 我的生命属于你,属于你,属于你。


6 双重所有格

   物主代词不可与 a, an, this, that,
these, those, some, any, several, no, each, every, such, another,
which等词一起前置,修饰一个名词,而必须用双重所有格。
 公式为:
  a, an, this, that +名词+of
+名词性物主代词。如:
    a friend of mine.
    each brother of his.


7 反身代词

 1) 列表
I     you     you     she    he
myself   yourself 
yourselves herself himself
we     they    
it    one
ourselves themselves  itself  oneself
 2)做宾语
  a.
有些动词需有反身代词
   absent, bathe, amuse, blame, dry, cut, enjoy, hurt, introduce,
behave
   We enjoyed ourselves very much last night. 我们昨晚玩得很开心。
   Please
help yourself to some fish.  请你随便吃点鱼。
  b. 用于及物动词+宾语+介词
   take
pride in, be annoyed with, help oneself to sth.
   I could not dress (myself)
up at that time. 那个时候我不能打扮我自己。
  
  注:有些动词后不跟反身代词, get up, sit-down, stand
up, wake up等。
  Please sit down. 请坐。
 3) 作表语; 同位语
   be
oneself: I am not myself today.  我今天不舒服。
   The thing itself is not
important.  事情本身并不重要。
 
 4) 在不强调的情况下,but, except, for
等介词后宾语用反身代词或人称代词宾格均可。如:
No one but myself (me) is hurt.
注意:
  a.
反身代词本身不能单独作主语。
   (错) Myself drove the car.
   (对) I myself drove the
car. 我自己开车。
  b. 但在and, or, nor连接的并列主语中,第二个主语可用反身代词,特别是myself
作主语。
   Charles and myself saw it.
 5)第二人称作宾语,要用反身代词。
   You should
be proud of yourself. 你应为自己感到骄傲。


8 相互代词

 1)相互代词只有each other和one
another两个词组。他们表示句中动词所叙述的动作或感觉在涉及的各个对象之间是相互存在的,例如:
  It is easy to see that
the people of different cultures have always copied each
other.
  显而易见,不同文化的人总是相互借鉴的。
 2) 相互代词的句法功能:
  a.
作动词宾语;
   People should love one another. 人们应当彼此相爱。
  b.
可作介词宾语;
   Does bark, cocks crow, frogs croak to each other. 
吠、鸡鸣、蛙儿对唱。
 说明:传统语法认为,相互关系存在于两个人或物之间用each other, 存在于两个以上人和物之间用one
another。现代英语中,两组词交替使用的实例也很多,例如:
   He put all the books beside each
other.
    他把所有书并列摆放起来。
   He put all the books beside one another.
    他把所有书并列摆放起来。
   Usually these small groups were independent of each
other.
    这些小团体通常是相互独立的。
  c. 相互代词可加-'s构成所有格,例如:
    The students
borrowed each other's notes.
   
学生们互借笔记。


9 指示代词

 1) 指示代词分单数(this /
that)和复数(these / those)两种形式,既可作限定词又可做代词,例如:
      单数          复数
限定词:This
girl is Mary.  Those men are my
               teachers.
代词: This is
Mary.     Those are my
               teachers.
 2)
指示代词的句法功能;
  a. 作主语
    This is the way to do it.
   
这事儿就该这样做。
  
   b. 作宾语
    I like this better than that.
   
我喜欢这个甚至那个。
   c. 作主语补语
    My point is this.
   
我的观点就是如此。
   d. 作介词宾语
    I don't say no to that.
   
我并未拒绝那个。
    There is no fear of that.
   
那并不可怕。
 说明1:
  指示代词在作主语时可指物也可指人,但作其他句子成分时只能指物,不能指人,例如:
 (对)That is my
teacher. 那是我的老师。( that作主语,指人)
 (对)He is going to marry this
girl. 他要和这个姑娘结婚。(this作限定词)
 (错)He is going to marry
this. (this作宾语时不能指人)
 (对)I bought
this. 我买这个。(this指物,可作宾语)
 说明2:
  That和those可作定语从句的先行词,但this和
these不能,同时,在作先行词时,只有those可指人,试比较:
 (对) He admired that which looked
beautiful. 他赞赏外表漂亮的东西。
 (对) He admired those who looked beautiful.
他赞赏那些外表漂亮的人。(those指人)
 (错) He admired that who danced
well. (that作宾语时不能指人)
 (对) He admired those who danced
well. 他赞赏跳舞好的人。(those指人)
 (对) He admired those which looked beautiful.
他赞赏那些外表漂亮的东西。(those指物)


10 疑问代词

 1)
疑问代词在句中起名词词组的作用,用来构成疑问句。疑问代词有下列几个:
  指 人: who, whom, whose
  指 物:
what
  既可指人又可指物: which
 2)
疑问代词在句中应位于谓语动词之前,没有性和数的变化,除who之外也没有格的变化。what, which,
whose还可作限定词。试比较:
 疑问代词:Whose are these books on the
desk? 
       桌上的书是谁的?
      What was the directional flow of U. S.
territorial expansion?
       美国的领土扩张是朝哪个方向的?
 限定词: Whose books are these
on the desk?
       桌上的书是谁的?
      What events led to most of the east of
the Mississippi River becoming part of the United States? 
哪些事件使密西西比河以东的大部分土地归属于美国?
 说明1:
   无论是做疑问代词还是限定词,which 和 what
所指的范围不同。what所指的范围是无限的,而which则指在一定的范围内,例如:
  Which girls do you like best?
   你喜欢哪几个姑娘?
  What girls do you like best?
  
你喜欢什么样的姑娘?
 说明2:
   Whom是who的宾格,在书面语中,它作动词宾语或介词宾语,在口语中作宾语时,可用who代替,但在介词后只能用whom,
例如:
  Who(m) did you meet on the street?
    你在街上遇到了谁?(作动词宾语)
  Who(m)
are you taking the book to?
    你要把这书带给谁?(作介词宾语,置句首)
  To whom did you
speak on the campus?
    你在校园里和谁讲话了?(作介词宾语,置介词
后,不能用who取代。)
 说明3:
   疑问代词用于对介词宾语提问时,过去的文体中介词和疑问代词通常一起放在句首,现代英语中,疑问代词在句首,介词在句未,例如:
 For
what do most people live and work?
    大部分人生活和工作的目的是什么?(旧文体)
 What are you
looking for?
    你在找什么?(现代英语)
 说明4:
   疑问代词还可引导名词性从句,例如:
 I
can't make out what he is driving at.
  我不知道他用意何在。
 Can you tell me whose
is the blue shirt on the bed? 
  你能告诉我床上的蓝衬衣是谁的吗?
 Much of what you say I
agree with, but I cannot go all the way with
you.
  你说的我大部分同意,但并不完全赞同。


11 关系代词

 1)
关系代词用来引导定语从句。它代表先行词,同时在从句中作一定的句子成分,例如:The girl to whom I spoke is my
cousin. 跟我讲话的姑娘是我表妹。(该句中whom既代表先行词the girl,又在从句中作介词to的宾语。)
 2)
关系代词有主格,宾格和属格之分,并有指人与指物之分。在限定性定语从句中,that 可指人也可指物,见表:
     
限定性   非限定性    限定性
      指 人   指  物   指人或指物
主 格   who    which    
that
宾 格   whom    that     that
属 格   whose  of which/whose  of
which/whose
 例如:
  This is the pencil whose point is
broken.
   这就是那个折了尖的铅笔。
  (whose 指物,在限定性定语从句中作定语)
 
  He came back
for the book which he had
forgotten. 他回来取他丢下的书。
 (which指物,在限定性定语从句中作宾语,可以省略)
 3)
关系代词which的先行词可以是一个句子,例如:
  He said he saw me there, which was a
lie.
  他说在那儿看到了我,纯属谎言。
 说明: 关系代词that在从句中作宾语或表语时可省略, 例如:
  I've
forgotten much of the Latin I once knew. 
   我过去懂拉丁语,现在大都忘了。
  He's
changed. He's not the man he was.
   他变化很大,已不是过去的他了。


12 every , no, all, both, neither,
nor

 1)不定代词有
 all , both, every,
each, either, neither, more, little, few, much, many, another, other, some, any
, one, no 以及some, something, anything, everything, somebody, someone, anybody,
anyone, nothing , nobody, no one, none, everybody, everyone.等。
 
 2)
不定代词的功能与用法
  a. 除every 和no外不定代词既可用作名词,也可用作形容词。every和no在句中只能作定语。
   I
have no idea about it.
 
  b. all 都,指三者以上。
   all
的主谓一致:all的单复数由它所修饰或指代的名词的单复数决定。
   All goes well.  一切进展得很好。
   all
通常不与可数名词单数连用,如:不说 all the book,而说 the whole book。
   但all可与表时间的可数名词单数连用,如
all day,all night,all the year; 但习惯上不说 all hour,all
century。
   all还可以与一些特殊的单数名词连用,如 all China, all the city, all my life, all
the way
 
 3)  both 都,指两者。
  a. both 与复数动词连用,但 both… and…可与单数名词连用。
 
  b. both, all 都可作同位语,其位置在行为动词前, be 动词之后。如果助动词或情态动词后面的实义动词省
去,则位于助动词或情态动词之前。
   Who can speak Japanese?  We both (all)
can.
 
 4) neither 两者都不
  a. neither作主语时,谓语动词用单数。
  b.
作定语与单数名词连用,但neither… nor 用作并列连词,可与复数名词连用。其谓语采用就近原则。
 
c. 可用于下列句型,避免重复。
   She can't sing,neither (can) he.
  neither
与nor
  d. 如前句是否定式从句,则主句用neither,而不用 nor。
   If you don't do it,neither
should I. 如果你不干,我也不干。
  e. 如后连续有几个否定句式,则用nor,不用neither。
    He can't
sing,nor dance,nor skate.


13 none, few, some, any, one,
ones

一、 none 无
  1) none作主语,多与of
构成短语 none of。 在答语中,none可单独使用。      
  Are there any pictures on the
wall? None.
  2) none作主语,谓语动词单复数均可。但如做表语,则其单复数与表语一致。
    It is none of
your business.
  
二、few 一些,少数
  few
作主语时,谓语动词用复数,多用于肯定句。
三、some 一些
  1) 可与复数名词及不可数名词连用。
  2)
当做"某一"解时,也可与单数名词连用。(= a certain)
    You will be sorry for this some
day.
    总有一天,你会后悔这件事的。
    A certain (some) person has seen you break the
rule.
   
某些人不同意你的看法。
注意:
  (1)在肯定疑问句中用some代替any。
  (2)some用于其他句式中:
   
a. 肯定疑问句中:说话人认为对方的答案会是肯定的,或期望得到肯定回答时。
    Would you
like句式中,表委婉请求或建议,如:
      Would you like some coffee?
   
b. 在条件状语从句中表示确定的意义时,如:
    If you need some help,let me know.
    c. 
some位于主语部分,
    Some students haven't been there before.
    d. 
当否定的是整体中的部分时,some可用于否定句。如:
    I haven't heard from some of my old friends
these years.
    这些年我没有收到一些老朋友的信。
四、any 一些
  1) any
多用于否定句和疑问句和条件状语从句中。
  当句中含有任何的意思时,any可用于肯定句。
   Here are three novels. You
may read any. 这有三本小说,你可任读一本。
五、one, ones 为复数形式
 
ones必须和形容词连用。如果替代的名词时无形容词在前,则用some, any,而不
用ones。
  Have you bought any
rulers? Yes,I 've bought some.


14 代词比较辩异 one,that 和it

 one表示泛指,that和it
表示特指。that与所指名词为同类,但不是同一个,而it 与所指名词为同一个。
 I can't find my hat. I think I must
buy one. (不定)
 我找不到我的帽子了。我想我该去买一顶。
 The hat you bought is bigger than
that I bought. (同类但不同个)
 你买的那顶帽子比我买的大。
 
 I can't find my hat. I don' t
know where I put it. ( 同一物)
 我找不到我的帽子。我不知道我把它放在哪了。


15 one/another/the other

 one… the
other 只有两个        
 some… the others  有三个以上
 one…
another,another…
 some… others,others…
 others = other
people/things
 the others = the rest 剩余的全部
 
 1) 泛指另一个用another。
 2)
一定范围内两人(物),一个用one,另一个用the other。
 3) 一定范围内三者,一个用one,另一个用one
(another),第三个可用the other,a third。
 4) 一定范围内,除去一部分人/物,剩余的全部用the others。
 5)
泛指别的人或物时,用others当在一定范围内,除去一部分后,剩余部分但不是全部时,也用others。


16 “the”的妙用

  He is one of the students who
help me.
  He is the one of the students who helps me.
 
他是帮我的学生之一。
  第一句定语从句与the students 一致。
  第二句定语从句与the one
一致。


17 anyone/any one;no one/none;every/each


1.anyone 和 any one
 
anyone仅指人,any one既可指人,也可指物。
2.no one 和none
 a)  none
后跟of短语,既可指人又可指物,而no one只单独使用,只指人。
 b)  none 作主语,谓语动词用单,复数均可,而no
one作主语谓语动词只能是单数。
 
 None of you could lift it.
你们中没有人可举起它。
 ---- Did any one call me up just
now? --刚才有人打电话给我吗?
 ---- No one.            --没有。
3.every
和each
1) every 强调全体的概念, each强调个体概念。
   Every student in our school works
hard. 我们学校的学生都很用功。
   Each student may have one
book.. 每个学生都可有一本书。
2) every 指三个以上的人或物(含三个),each指两个以上的人或物
(含两个)。
3) every 只作形容词,不可单独使用。each可作代词或形容词。
   Every student has to
take one.
   Each boy has to take one.
   Each of the boys has to take
one.
4) every不可以作状语,each可作状语。
5) every 有反复重复的意思,如 every two
weeks等; each没有。
6) every 与not 连用,表示部分否定; each 和not连用表示全部否定。
   Every
man is not honest. 并非每个人都诚实。
   Each man is not
honest. 这儿每个人都不诚实。


18 both, either, neither, all, any,
none

  这些词都可用作代词或形容词。其位置都在be
动词之后,行为动词之前或第一助动词之后。
 1) both (两者都),either(两者中任何一个), neither
(两者都不)。以上词使用范围为两个人或物。
  Neither of the two boys is
clever. 两个男孩都不聪明。
 
 2) both,either
  both与复数连用,either与单数连用。
 
Both the boys are clever.  两个男孩都很聪明。
  Either of the two boys is clever.
两个男孩都很聪明。
  There are flowers on both sides of the street.
  (两岸)
 
There are flowers on either side of the street.
 
(岸的两边)
  路边长满了野花。
 3) all (所有的,全部的人或物),any (任何一个), none (都不)。
以上词使用范围为三者以上。
  All the flowers are gone. 所有的花都谢了。
  I don't like any of
the flowers. 这些花我都不喜欢。
  I like none of the
flowers. 这些花我都不喜欢。
 注意:all与none用法一样。跟单数名词,用单数动词;跟复数名词,用复数动词。
    All
of the students are there.
      所有的学生都在那。
    All (of) the milk is
there. 
      所有的牛奶都在那。


19 many, much

  Many,much都意为"许多", many +
可数名词,much + 不可数名词。
   How many people are there at the meeting?
   How
much time has we left?
   Many of the workers were at the meeting.
   Much
of the time was spent on learning.


20 few, little, a few, a
little

(a) few + 可数名词, (a) little +
不可数名词
 a few / a little 为肯定含义,还有一点
 few / little 为否定含义,没有多少了。
 He has a
few friends.   他有几个朋友。
 He has few friends.    他几乎没有朋友。
 We still have a
little time. 我们还有点时间。
 There is little time
left.几乎没剩下什么时间了。
典型例题:
  Although he 's wealthy,he spends___ on
clothes.
  A. little  B. few C. a little  D. a few
  答案: A.
spend所指的是钱,不可数,只能用little或 a little.
本句为although引导的让步状语从句,由句意知后句为否定含义,因此应用little表示几乎不。
固定搭配:
  only a few
(=few)  not a few (=many)  quite a few (=many)
  many a (=many)
  Many
books were sold.
  Many a book was sold.
   卖出了许多书。
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youmeiyou da bao xia zai louzhu

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谢谢楼主的无私分享
波    心    天    心
澜    如    塌    若
不    古    不    冰
惊    井    惊    清

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楼主辛苦了!谢谢分享,致敬!

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谢谢分享,好帖子

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楼主辛苦了!谢谢分享

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20. 连词

  连词是一种虚词,
它不能独立担任句子成分而只起连接词与词,短语与短语以及句与句的作用。连词主要可分为两类:并列连词和从属连词。并列连词用来连接平行的词、词组和分句。如:and,
but, or, nor, so, therefore, yet, however, for, hence, as well as, both…and, not
only…but also, either…or, neither…nor, (and)then等等。


1 并列连词与并列结构

 并列连词引导两个并列的句子。
1) and
与or
 判断改错:
 (错) They sat down and talk about something.
 (错) They
started to dance and sang.
 (错) I saw two men sitting behind and whisper
there.
 (对) They sat down and talked about something.
 (对) They started to
dance and sing.
 (对)I saw two men sitting behind and whispering
there.
解析:
  第一句: and 连接两个并列的谓语,所以 talk 应改为 talked。
  第二句:and
连接两个并列的动词不定式,第二个不定式往往省略to,因此sang 应改为 sing。
  第三句:and 连接感观动词saw
后面的用作的宾补的两个并列分词结构,因此whisper应改为whispering。
注意:and
还可以和祈使句或名词词组连用表示条件。(or也有此用法)
   Make up your mind, and you'll get the
chance.
  = If you make up your mind, you'll get the chance.
   One more
effort, and you'll succeed.
  = If you make one more effort, you'll
succeed.
2) both …and 两者都
 She plays (both) the piano and the
guitar.
3) not only…but (also), as well as不但…而且)
   She plays not only
the piano, but (also) the guitar.
  注意: not only… but also
关联两个分句时,一个分句因有否定词not 而必须倒装。
   Not only does he like reading stories, but
also he can even write some.
 4) neithe…nor
意思为"既不……也不……"谓语动词采用就近原则,与nor后的词保持一致。
   Neither you nor he is to
blame.


2 比较and和or

 1)
并列结构中,or通常用于否定句,and用于肯定句。
 2) 但有时and 也可用于否定句。请注意其不同特点:
   There is
no air or water in the moon.
   There is no air and no water on the
moon.
 在否定中并列结构用or 连接,但含有两个否定词的句子实际被看作是肯定结构,因此要用and。
典型例题
 ---I
don't like chicken ___ fish. 
 ---I don't like chicken, ___ I like fish very
much.
 A. and; and  B. and; but C. or; but D. or;and
 答案C。否定句中表并列用or, but
表转折。
判断改错:
  (错) We will die without air and water.
  (错) We can't
live without air or water.
  (对) We will die without air or water.
  (对)
We can't live without air and water.


3 表示选择的并列结构

 1) or 意思为"否则"。
   I must
work hard, or I'll fail in the exam.
 2)
either…or 意思为"或者……或者……"。注意谓语动词采用就近原则。
   Either you or I am
right.
 


4 表示转折或对比

 1) but表示转折,while表示对比。
  
Some people love cats, while others hate them.
典型例题 
--- Would you
like to come to dinner tonight?  
--- I'd like to, ___ I'm too busy.
 A.
and  B. so  C. as  D. but  
 答案D。but与前面形成转折,符合语意。而表并列的and,
结果的so,原因的as都不符合句意。
 2) not…but… 意思为"不是……而是……"
   not 和but
后面的用词要遵循一致原则。
   They were not the bones of an animal, but (the bones) of a
human being.


5 表原因关系

1) for
判断改错:
  (错) For he
is ill, he is absent today.
  (对) He is absent today, for he is ill.
 
for是并列连词,不能置于含两个并列分句的句子的句首,只能将其放在两个分句中间。
2) so, therefore
  He hurt
his leg, so he couldn't play in the game.
注意:
  a.
两个并列连词不能连用,但therefore, then, yet.可以和并列连词连用。
   You can watch TV, and or you
can go to bed.
   He hurt his leg, and so / and therefore he couldn't play in
the game.
  b. although… yet…,但although不与 but连用。
   (错) Although
he was weak, but he tried his best to do the work..
   (对) Although he was
weak, yet he tried his best to do the
work.


6 比较so和 such

  其规律由so与such的不同词性决定。such
是形容词,修饰名词或名词词组,so是副词,只能修饰形容词或副
词。so 还可与表示数量的形容词many,few,much,
little连用,形成固定搭配。
so + adj.         such + a(n) + n.
so + adj. + a(n) +
n.   such + n. (pl.)
so + adj. + n. (pl.)    such +n. (pl.) 
so + adj. +
n. [不可数]  such +n. [不可数]
so foolish         such a fool 
so nice a
flower      such a nice flower
so many/ few flowers    such nice
flowers
so much/little money.   such rapid progress 
so many people      
such a lot of people
  so many 已成固定搭配,a lot of 虽相当于 many,但 a lot of
为名词性的,只能用such搭配。
  so…that与such…that之间的转换既为 so与such之间的转换。
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18. 定语从句

  定语从句(Attributive
Clauses)在句中做定语,修饰一个名词或代词,被修饰的名词,词组或代词即先行词。定语从句通常出现在先行词之后,由关系词(关系代词或关系副词)引出。
  关系代词有:who,
whom, whose, that, which等。
  关系副词有:when, where, why等。


1 关系代词引导的定语从句

  关系代词所代替的先行词是人或物的名词或代词,并在句中充当主语、宾语、定语等成分。关系代词在定语从句中作主语时,从句谓语动词的人称和数要和先行词保持一致。
1)who,
whom, that
  这些词代替的先行词是人的名词或代词,在从句中所起作用如下:
  Is he the man who/that wants
to see you?
他就是你想见的人吗?(who/that在从句中作主语)
  He is the man whom/ that I saw
yesterday.
他就是我昨天见的那个人。(whom/that在从句中作宾语)
2) Whose 用来指人或物,(只用作定语,
若指物,它还可以同of which互换), 例如:
  They rushed over to help the man whose car had
broken down.  那人车坏了,大家都跑过去帮忙。
  Please pass me the book whose (of which)
cover is green. 请递给我那本绿皮的书。
3)which,
that
  它们所代替的先行词是事物的名词或代词,在从句中可作主语、宾语等,例如:
  A prosperity which / that had
never been seen before appears in the countryside. 农村出现了前所未有的繁荣。(which /
that在句中作宾语)
  The package (which / that) you are carrying is about to come
unwrapped. 你拿的包快散了。(which / that在句中作宾语)


2 关系副词引导的定语从句

 
关系副词可代替的先行词是时间、地点或理由的名词,在从句中作状语。
1)when, where, why
  关系副词when, where,
why的含义相当于"介词+ which"结构,因此常常和"介词+ which"结构交替使用,例如:
  There are occasions when
(on which) one must yield. 任何人都有不得不屈服的时候。
  Beijing is the place where (in
which) I was born. 北京是我的出生地。
  Is this the reason why (for which) he refused
our offer? 这就是他拒绝我们帮助他的理由吗?
2)that代替关系副词
 
that可以用于表示时间、地点、方式、理由的名词后取代when, where, why和"介词+
which"引导的定语从句,在口语中that常被省略,例如:
  His father died the year (that / when / in
which) he was born. 他父亲在他出生那年逝世了。
  He is unlikely to find the place (that /
where / in which) he lived forty years ago.
他不大可能找到他四十年前居住过的地方。


3 判断关系代词与关系副词

  方法一:
用关系代词,还是关系副词完全取决于从句中的谓语动词。及物动词后面无宾语,就必须要求用关系代词;而不及物动词则要求用关系副词。例如:
  This is
the mountain village where I stayed last year.
  I'll never forget the days
when I worked together with you.
 
判断改错(注:先显示题,再显示答案,横线;用不同的颜色表示出。)
  (错) This is the mountain village where I
visited last year.
  (错) I will never forget the days when I spent in the
countryside.
  (对) This is the mountain village (which) I visited last
year.
  (对) I'll never forget the days (which) I spent in the
countryside.
  习惯上总把表地点或时间的名词与关系副词 where,
when联系在一起。此两题错在关系词的误用上。
  方法二:
准确判断先行词在定语从句中的成分(主、谓、宾、定、状),也能正确选择出关系代词/关系副词。
例1. Is this museum ___ you
visited a few days age?
  A. where B. that  C. on which  D. the one
例2. Is
this the museum ____ the exhibition was held.
  A. where  B. that  C. on
which  D. the one
答案:例1 D,例2 A
例1变为肯定句: This museum is ___ you visited
a few days ago.
例2变为肯定句: This is the museum ___ the exhibition was held.
  在句1中,所缺部分为宾语,而where, that, on which都不能起到宾语的作用,只有the
one既做了主句的表语,又可做从句的宾语,可以省略关系代词,所以应选D。
  而句2中,
主、谓、宾俱全,从句部分为句子的状语表地点,既可用副词where,又因 in the museum词组,可用介词in + which
引导地点状语。而此题中,介词on 用的不对,所以选A。
  关系词的选择依据在从句中所做的成分,先行词在从句中做主、定、宾语时,选择关系代词 (who,
whom, that, which, whose); 先行词在从句中做状语时,应选择关系副词 ( where 地点状语,when 时间状语,why 原因状语)



4 限制性和非限制性定语从句

1)
定语从句有限制性和非限制性两种。限制性定语从句是先行词不可缺少的部分,去掉它主句意思往往不明确;非限制性定语从句是先行词的附加说明,去掉了也不会影响主句的意思,它与主句之间通常用逗号分开,例如:
   This
is the house which we bought last month.   这是我们上个月买的那幢房子。(限制性)
   The house,
which we bought last month, is very nice.这幢房子很漂亮,是我们上个月买的。(非限制性)
2)
当先行词是专有名词或物主代词和指示代词所修饰时,其后的定语从句通常是非限制性的,例如:
   Charles Smith, who was my
former teacher, retired last year. 查理·史密斯去年退休了,他曾经是我的老师。
   My house, which I
bought last year, has got a lovely garden. 我去年买的的那幢房子带着个漂亮的花园。
   This novel,
which I have read three times, is very touching. 这本小说很动人,我已经读了三遍。
3)
非限制性定语从句还能将整个主句作为先行词, 对其进行修饰, 这时从句谓语动词要用第三人称单数,例如:
   He seems not to have
grasped what I meant, which greatly upsets me. 他似乎没抓住我的意思,这使我心烦。
   Liquid
water changes to vapor, which is called evaporation.
液态水变为蒸汽,这就叫做蒸发。
说明:关系代词that和关系副词why不能引导非限制性定语从句。


介词+关系词

1)介词后面的关系词不能省略。
2)that前不能有介词。
3)
某些在从句中充当时间,地点或原因状语的"介词+关系词"结构可以同关系副词when 和where 互换。
  This is the house in
which I lived two years ago.
  This is the house where I lived two years
ago.
  Do you remember the day on which you joined our club?
  Do you
remember the day when you joined our club?


6 as, which 非限定性定语从句

  由as, which
引导的非限定性定语从句,as和which可代整个主句,相当于and this或and that。As一般放在句首,which在句中。
  As we
know, smoking is harmful to one's health.
  The sun heats the earth, which is
very important to us.  
典型例题 
1)Alice received an invitation from her
boss, ___came as a surprise.
A. it  B. that  C. which  D. he
  答案C.
此为非限定性从句,不能用 that修饰,而用which.,it 和he
都使后句成为句子,两个独立的句子不能单以逗号连接。况且选he句意不通。
2)The weather turned out to be very
good, ___ was more than we could expect.
A. what B. which C. that D. it
 
答案B。which可代替句子,用于非限定性定语从句,而what不可。That
不能用于非限定性定语从句,it不为连词,使由逗号连接的两个句子并在一起在英语语法上行不通。
3)It rained hard yesterday,
____ prevented me from going to the park..
A. that B. which  C. as  D.
it
 答案B.
  as
和which在引导非限制性定语从句时,这两个关系代词都指主句所表达的整个意思,且在定语从句中都可以作主语和宾语。但不同之处主要有两点:
 (1) as
引导的定语从句可置于句首,而which不可。
 (2) as
代表前面的整个主句并在从句中作主语时,从句中的谓语必须是系动词;若为行为动词,则从句中的关系代词只能用which.。
 
在本题中,prevent由于是行为动词,所以正确选项应为B。
As 的用法
例1. the same… as;such…as 中的as
是一种固定结构, 和……一样……。
   I have got into the same trouble as he (has).
例2.
as可引导非限制性从句,常带有'正如'。
  As we know, smoking is harmful to one's
health.
  As is know, smoking is harmful to one's
health.
 As是关系代词。例1中的as作know的宾语;例2中,它充当从句的主语,谓语动词know要用被动式。


7 先行词和关系词二合一

 1)Whoever spits in public will
be punished here.
   (Whoever 可以用 anyone who 代替)
 2)The parents will use
what they have to send their son to technical school.
  (what 可以用all
that代替)


8 what/whatever;that/what; who/whoever


1)what = the thing
which;whatever = anything
   What you want has been sent here.
   Whatever
you want makes no difference to me.
2) who= the person that  whoever= anyone
who
   (错)Who breaks the law will be punished.
   (错)Whoever robbed the
bank is not clear.
   (对)Whoever breaks the law will be punished.
  
(对)Who robbed the bank is not clear.
3) that 和 what 
  当that引导定语从句时
,通常用作关系代词,而引导名词性从句时,是个不充当任何成分的连接词。宾语从句和表语从句中的that常可省略。What只能引导名词性从 句,
用作连接代词,作从句的具体成分,且不能省略。
  I think (that) you will like the stamps.
  What
we need is more practice.


9 关系代词that 的用法

1)不用that的情况
  a)
在引导非限定性定语从句时。
    (错) The tree, that is four hundred years old, is very
famous here.
  b) 介词后不能用。
     We depend on the land from which we get our
food.
     We depend on the land that/which we get our food from.
2)
只能用that作为定语从句的关系代词的情况
  a) 在there be
句型中,只用that,不用which。
  b) 在不定代词,如:anything, nothing, the one, all, much, few,
any, little等作先行词时,只用that,不用which。
  c) 先行词有the only, the very修饰时,只用that。 
  d) 先行词为序数词、数词、形容词最高级时,只用that。.
  e) 先行词既有人,又有物时。
举例:
  All
that is needed is a supply of oil.
  所需的只是供油问题。
  Finally, the thief
handed everything that he had stolen to the police. 
 
那贼最终把偷的全部东西交给了警察。


19. 状语从句

19.1
地点状语从句
  地点状语从句通常由where, wherever 引导。
  Where I live there are
plenty of trees.
  我住的地方树很多。
  Wherever I am I will be thinking of you.
  不管我在哪里我都会想到你。


1 地点状语从句

  地点状语从句通常由where, wherever
引导。
  Where I live there are plenty of
trees.
  我住的地方树很多。
  Wherever I am I will be thinking of you.
 
不管我在哪里我都会想到你。


2 方式状语从句

  方式状语从句通常由as, (just) as…so…,
as if, as though引导。
1) as, (just) as…so…引导的方式状语从句通常位于主句后,但在(just)
as…so…结构中位于句首,这时as从句带有比喻的含义,意思是"正如…","就像",多用于正式文体,例如:
 Always do to the
others as you would be done by.
 你希望人家怎样待你,你就要怎样待人。
 As water is
to fish, so air is to man.
 我们离不开空气,犹如鱼儿离不开水。
 Just as we sweep
our rooms, so we should sweep backward ideas from our
minds.
 正如打扫房屋一样,我们也要扫除我们头脑中落后的东西。
2) as if, as though
 
两者的意义和用法相同,引出的状语从句谓语多用虚拟语气,表示与事实相反,有时也用陈述语气,表示所说情况是事实或实现的可能性较大。汉译常作"仿佛……似的","好像……似的",例如:
 They
completely ignore these facts as if (as though) they never
existed.
 他们完全忽略了这些事实,就仿佛它不存在似的。(与事实相反,谓语用虚拟语气。)
 He looks as if
(as though) he had been hit by
lighting.
 他那样子就像被雷击了似的。(与事实相反,谓语用虚拟语气。)
 It looks as if the
weather may pick up very
soon.
看来天气很快就会好起来。(实现的可能性较大,谓语用陈述语气。)
 说明:as if / as
though也可以引导一个分词短语、不定式短语或无动词短语,例如:
 He stared at me as if seeing me
for first time.
他目不转睛地看着我,就像第一次看见我似的。
 He cleared his throat as if
to say something.
他清了清嗓子,像要说什么似的。
 The waves dashed on the rocks
as if in anger.
波涛冲击着岩石,好像很愤怒。


3 原因状语从句

比较:because, since, as和for
1) because语势最强,用来说明人所不知的原因,回答why提出的问题。当原因是显而易见的或已为人们所知,就用as或 since。
 
I didn't go, because I was afraid.
  Since /As the weather is so bad, we have
to delay our journey.
2) 由because引导的从句如果放在句末,且前面有逗
号,则可以用for来代替。但如果不是说明直接原因,而是多种情况加以推断,就只能用for。
  He is absent today, because /
for he is ill.
  He must be ill, for he is absent today.


4 目的状语从句

  表示目的状语的从句可以由that, so that, in
order that, lest, for fear that, in case等词引导,例如:
   You must speak louder so
that /in order that you can be heard by all.
   He wrote the name down for
fear that(lest) he should forget it.
   Better take more clothes in case the
weather is cold.
  


5 结果状语从句

 结果状语从句常由so… that 或
such…that引导,掌握这两个句型,首先要了解so 和 such与其后的词的搭配规律。
比较:so和
such
 其规律由so与such的不同词性决定。such 是形容词,修饰名词或名词词组,so 是副词,只能修饰形容词或副词。 so
还可与表示数量的形容词many, few, much, little连用,形成固定搭配。
 so foolish       such a
fool       
 so nice a flower    such a nice flower    
 so many / few
flowers  such nice flowers    
 so much / little money. such rapid
progress   
 so many people     such a lot of people   
( so many
已成固定搭配,a lot of 虽相当于 many,但 a lot of 为名词性的,只能用such搭配。)
 
so…that与such…that之间的转换既为 so与such之间的转换。
  The boy is so young that he can't go
to school.
  He is such a young boy that he can't go to
school


6 条件状语从句

  连接词主要有 if, unless, as/so long
as, on condition that 等。.
  if
引导的条件句有真实条件句和非真实条件句两种。非真实条件句已在虚拟语气中阐述。
  unless = if not. 
 
Let's go out for a walk unless you are too tired.
  If you are not too tied,
let's go out for a walk.
典型例题
You will be late ___ you leave
immediately. 
A. unless  B. until  C. if  D. or
 答案A。
句意:除非你立即走,否则你就回迟到的。可转化为 If you dong leave immediately, you will be
late. B、D句意不对,or表转折,句子如为 You leave immediately or you will be late.

7 让步状语从句

though, although
 注意:
当有though, although时,后面的从句不能有but,但是 though 和yet可连用
 Although it's raining,
they are still working in the field. 
 虽然在下雨,但他们仍在地里干活。
 He is very old,
but he still works very hard. 
 虽然他很老,但仍然努力地工作。
 Though the sore be
healed, yet a scar may remain.
 伤口虽愈合,但伤疤留下了。 (谚语)
典型例题
1) ___she
is young, she knows quite a lot. 
A. When B. However  C. Although  D.
Unless
答案:C。意为虽然她很年轻,却知道许多。
2) as, though 引导的倒装句
  as /
though引导的让步从句必须表语或状语提前(形容词、副词、分词、实义动词提前)。
  Child as /though he was, he knew
what was the right thing to do.
 = Though he was a small child, he knew what
was the right thing to do.
注意:
a. 句首名词不能带任何冠词。
    b. 句首是实义动词,其他助动词放在主语后。如果实义动词有宾语和状语,随实义动词一起放在主语之前。
  
Try hard as he will, he never seems able to do the work satisfactorily.
  =
Though he tries hard, he never seems…
 虽然他尽了努力,但他的工作总做的不尽人意。
3) ever
if, even though. 即使
  We'll make a trip even though the weather is
bad.
4) whether…or-  不管……都
   Whether you believe it or not, it is
true.
5) "no matter +疑问词" 或"疑问词+后缀ever"
   No matter what happened,
he would not mind.
   Whatever happened, he would not mind.
  替换:no matter
what = whatever
     no matter who = whoever
     no matter when =
whenever
     no matter where = wherever
     no matter which =
whichever
     no matter how = however
  注意:no matter
不能引导主语从句和宾语从句。
 (错)No matter what you say is of no use now.
 (对)Whatever
you say is of no use now.
    你现在说什么也没用了。(Whatever you
say是主语从句)
 (错)Prisoners have to eat no matter what they're given,
 (对)Prisoners have to eat whatever they're
given. 囚犯们只能给什么吃什么。


8 比较while, when, as

1)as, when 引导短暂性动作的动词。
   
Just as / Just when / When I stopped my car, a man came up to
me.
2)当从句的动作发生于主句动作之前,只能用when 引导这个从句,不可用as 或 while。
    When you have
finished your work, you may have a rest.
3)从句表示"随时间推移"连词能用as,不用when
或while。
    As the day went on, the weather got
worse. 
   日子一天天过去,天气越变越坏。


9 比较until和till

  此两个连词意义相同。肯定形式表示的意思是"做某事直至某时",动词必须是延续性的。否定形式表达的意思是"直至某时才做某事"。动词为延续性或非延续性都可 以。
正确使用这两个连词的关键之一就在于判断句中的动词该用肯定式还是否定式。
 
  肯定句:
  I slept until midnight.
我一直睡到半夜时醒了。
  Wait till I call you.  等着我叫你。
  (在肯定句中可用before代替 Let's get
in the wheat before the sun sets.)
 
  否定句:
  She didn't arrive until
6 o'clock.
  她直到6点才到。
  Don't get off the bus until it has stopped.
 
公共汽车停稳后再下车。
  I didn't manage to do it until you had explained how. 
直到你教我后,我才会做。
1)Until可用于句首,而till通常不用于句首。
  Until you told me, I had
heard nothing of what happened.
  直到你告诉我以前,出了什么事我一点也不知道。 
2)Until when
疑问句中,until要放在句首。
  ---Until when are you staying? 你呆到什么时候?
  --- Until
next Monday. 呆到下周一。 
注意:否定句可用另外两种句式表示。
(1)Not until
…在句首,主句用倒装。
  Not until the early years of the 19th century did man know what
heat is.
  直到19 世纪初,人类才知道热能是什么。
  Not until I began to work did I realize
how much time I had wasted.
  直到我开始工作,我才认识到了我已蹉跎了几多岁月。
(2) It is not
until… that…


10 表示"一…就…"的结构

 hardly/scarcely…when/before,
no sooner…than 和as soon as都可以表示"一…就…"的意思,例:
 I had hardly / scarcely
got home when it began to rain.
 I had no sooner got home than it began to
rain.
 As soon as I got home, it began to rain.
 注意:如果hardly,
scarcely 或no sooner置于句首,句子必须用倒装结构:
 Hardly / Scarcely had I got home when it
began to rain.
 No sooner had I got home than it began to
rain.
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15. 主谓一致

  主谓一致是指:
1)
语法形式上要一致,即单复数形式与谓语要一致。
2) 意义上要一致,即主语意义上的单复数要与谓语的单复数形式一致。
3)
就近原则,即谓语动词的单复形式取决于最靠近它的词语,
  一般来说,不可数名词用动词单数,可数名词复数用动词复数。
  There
is much water in the thermos.
  但当不可数名词前有表示数量的复数名词时,谓语动词用复数形式。
  Ten
thousand tons of coal were produced last year.


1 并列结构作主语时谓语用复数

  Reading and writing are very
important.
 注意: 当主语由and连结时,如果它表示一个单一的概念,即指同一人或同一物时,谓语动词用单数,and
此时连接的两个词前只有一个冠词。
 The iron and steel industry is very important to our
life.
典型例题
 The League secretary and monitor ___ asked to make a
speech at the meeting.
A. is  B. was  C. are  D. were
答案B. 注:
先从时态上考虑。这是过去发生的事情应用过去时,先排除A.,C.。本题易误选D,因为The League secretary and monitor
好象是两个人,但仔细辨别, monitor 前没有the,在英语中,当一人兼数职时只在第一个职务前加定冠词。后面的职务用and
相连。这样本题主语为一个人,所以应选B。


2 主谓一致中的靠近原则

1)当there be
句型的主语是一系列事物时,谓语应与最邻近的主语保持一致。
 There is a pen, a knife and several books on
the desk..
 There are twenty boy-students and twenty-three girl-students in
the class.
2)当either… or… 与neither… nor, 连接两个主语时,谓语动词与最邻近的主语保持一致。
如果句子是由here, there引导,而主语又不止一个时,谓语通常也和最邻近的主语一致。
 Either you or she is to
go.
 Here is a pen, a few envelops and some paper for you.


3 谓语动词与前面的主语一致

  当主语后面跟有with, together with,
like, except, but, no less than, as well as 等词引起的短语时,谓语动词与前面的主语一致。
  The
teacher together with some students is visiting the factory.
  He as well as
I wants to go boating.


4 谓语需用单数

1) 代词each和由every, some, no,
any等构成的复合代词作主语,或主语中含有each, every, 谓语需用单数。
  Each of us has a
tape-recorder.
  There is something wrong with my watch.
2)
当主语是一本书或一条格言时,谓语动词常用单数。
  The Arabian Night is a book known to lovers of
English.
  >是英语爱好者熟悉的一本好书。
3)
表示金钱,时间,价格或度量衡的复合名词作主语 时,通常把这些名词看作一个整体,谓语一般用单数。(用复数也可,意思不变。)
  Three weeks
was allowed for making the necessary preparations.
  Ten yuan is
enough.


5 指代意义决定谓语的单复数

1) 在代词what, which, who, none,
some, any, more, most, all等词的单复数由其指代的词的单复数决定。
   All is right.   
(一切顺利。)
   All are present.  (所有人都到齐了。)
2)
集体名词作主语时,谓语的数要根据主语的意思来决定。如family, audience, crew, crowd, class, company,
committee等词后用复数形式时,意为这个集体中的各个成员,用单数时表示该个集体。
   His family isn't very
large.  他家不是一个大家庭。
   His family are music lovers. 他的家人都是音乐爱好者。
 
但集合名词people, police, cattle, poultry等在任何情况下都用复数形式。
  Are there any police
around?
3)有些名词,如variety, number, population, proportion, majority
等有时看作单数,有时看作复数。
 A number of +名词复数+复数动词。
 The number of +名词复数+单数动词。
 A
number of books have lent out.
 The majority of the students like
English.


6 与后接名词或代词保持一致

1) 用half of, part of, most of,
a portion of 等词引起主语时,动词通常与of后面的名词,代词保持一致。
 Most of his money is spent on
books.
 Most of the students are taking an active part in sports.
2)
在一些短语,如 many a 或 more than one 所修饰的词作主语时,谓语动词多用单数形式。但由more than… of
作主语时,动词应与其后的名词或代词保持一致。
  Many a person has read the novel. 许多人都读过这本书。
 
More than 60 percent of the students are from the
city.百分之六十多的学生都来自这个城市。


16. 虚拟语气

1) 概念
  
虚拟语气用来表示说话人的主观愿望或假想,所说的是一个条件,不一定是事实,或与事实相反。
2) 在条件句中的应用
  
条件句可分为两类,一类为真实条件句,一类为非真实条件句。非真实条件句表示的是假设的或实际可能性不大的情况,故采用虚拟语气。


1 真实条件句

  真实条件句用于陈述语气,假设的情况可能发生,其中 if
是如果的意思。
 
  时态关系
句型: 条件从句    主句
   一般现在时   shall/will + 动词原形
 If
he comes, he will bring his violin.
典型例题
 The volleyball match will be
put off if it ___. 
A. will rain  B. rains  C. rained  D. is
rained
 答案B。真实条件句主句为将来时,从句用一般现在时。
注意:
1) 在真实条件句中,主句不能用be going
to表示将来,该用shall, will.
 (错) If you leave now, you are never going to regret
it.
 (对) If you leave now, you will never regret it.
 2)
表示真理时,主句谓语动词便不用shall (will) +动词原形,而直接用一般现在时的动词形式。


2 非真实条件句

1)时态:可以表示过去,现在和将来的情况。它的基本特点是时态退后。
a.  同现在事实相反的假设。
句型 :
条件从句     主句
    一般过去时   should( would) +动词原形
  If they were here, they
would help you.
b.  表示于过去事实相反的假设。
句型: 条件从句      主句     
   过去完成时   
should(would) have+ 过去分词
  If she had worked harder, she would have
succeeded.  
  The rice would not have been burnt if you had been more
careful. 
  If my lawyer had been here last Saturday, he would have
prevented me from going.
  If he had come yesterday, I should /
would have told him about it.
  含义:He did not come yesterday, so I did not
tell him about it.
  If he had not been ill and missed many classes, he would
have made greater progress.
  含义: He was ill and missed many lessons, so he
did not make greater progress. 
c.  表示对将来的假想
 句型:  条件从句      
主句
     一般过去时      should+ 动词原形
     were+ 不定式     would + 动词原形
    
should+ 动词原形
 If you succeeded, everything would be all right.
 If you
should succeed, everything would be all right.
 If you were to succeed,
everything would be all right.


3 混合条件句

 
主句与从句的动作发生在不同的时间,这时主,从句谓语动词的虚拟语气形式因时间不同而不同,这叫做混合条件句。
  If you had asked him
yesterday, you would know what to do now.
  (从句与过去事实相反,主句与现在事实相反。)
  If it
had rained last night (过去), it would be very cold today (现在).


4 虚拟条件句的倒装

  虚拟条件句的从句部分如果含有were, should,
或had, 可将if省略,再把were, should或had 移到从句句首,实行倒装。
  Were they here now, they could
help us.
 =If they were here now, they could help us.
  Had you come
earlier, you would have met him
 =If you had come earlier, you would have met
him. 
  Should it rain, the crops would be saved.
 =Were it to rain, the
crops would be saved.
注意:
  在虚拟语气的从句中,动词'be'的过去时态一律用"were",不用was,
即在从句中be用were代替。
  If I were you, I would go to look for him.
  
如果我是你,就会去找他。
  If he were here, everything would be all right.
  
如果他在这儿,一切都会好的。
典型例题
 _____ to do the work, I should do it some other
day.
A. If were I   B. I were C. Were I D. Was I
  答案C. 在虚拟条件状语中如果有were,
should, had这三个词,通常将if省略,主语提前, 变成 were, should, had
+主语的形式。但要注意,在虚拟条件状语从句中,省略连词的倒装形式的句首不能用动词的缩略形式。如我们可说 Were I not to do., 而不能说
Weren't I to do.


5 特殊的虚拟语气词:should

1) It is demanded / necessary /
a pity + that…结构中的主语从句的谓语动词要用should 加动词原形, should
可省略。
句型:
    (1)suggested
It is  (2)important    that…+ (should)
do
    (3) a pity
(1)suggested, ordered, proposed, required, 
demanded, requested, insisted; + (should) do
(2)important, necessary,
natural, strange
a pity,  a shame,  no wonder
(3)It is suggested that we
(should) hold a meeting next week.
  It is necessary that he (should)
come to our meeting
tomorrow.
2)在宾语从句中的应用
  在表示命令、建议、要求等一类动词后面的从句中。
order, suggest,
propose, require, demand, request, insist, command, insist + (should) do
  I
suggest that we (should) hold a meeting next week.
  He insisted that he
(should ) be sent there.
 注意: 如suggest, insist不表示"建议"
或"坚持要某人做某事时",即它们用于其本意"暗示、表明"、"坚持认为"时,宾语从句用陈述语气。
  The guard at gate insisted
that everybody obey the rules. 
 判断改错:
 (错) You pale face suggests
that you (should) be ill.
  (对)  Your pale face suggests that you are
ill.
  (错)  I insisted that you ( should) be wrong.
  (对)  I insisted that
you were wrong.
3)在表语从句,同位语从句中的应用
  在suggestion, proposal, idea, plan,
order, advice等名词后面的表语从句、同位语从句中要用虚拟语气,即(should)+动词原形。
   My idea is that we
(should) get more people to attend the conference.
   I make a proposal that
we (should) hold a meeting next
week.


6 wish的用法

1)用于wish后面的从句,表示与事实相反的情况,或表示将来不太可能实现的愿望。其宾语从句的动词形式为:
             
真实状况 wish后      
从句动作先于主句动词动作  现在时  过去时
(be的过去式为
were)                 
从句动作与主句动作同时发生 过去时  过去完成时
(had +
过去分词)                  
将来不大可能实现的愿望   将来时 would/could
+
                   动词原形    
 I wish I were as tall as
you. 我希望和你一样高。
 He wished he hadn't said that. 他希望他没讲那样的话。
 I wish it
would rain tomorrow. 我希望明天下雨就好了。
2)Wish to do表达法。
  Wish sb / sth to
do
  I wish to see the manager. = I want to see the manager.
  I wish the
manager to be informed at once. (= I want the manager to be informed at
once.)


7 比较if only与only if

  only if表示"只有";if
only则表示"如果……就好了"。If only也可用于陈述语气。
  I wake up only if the alarm clock rings.
只有闹钟响了,我才会醒。
  If only the alarm clock had rung.   当时闹钟响了,就好了。
  If only
he comes early.       但愿他早点回来。


8 It is (high) time that

  It is (high) time that
后面的从句谓语动词要用过去式或用should加动词原形,但should不可省略。
  It is time that the children went
to bed.
  It is high time that the children should go to
bed.


9 need "不必做"和"本不该做"

 didn't need to do表示: 过去不必做某事,
事实上也没做。.
 needn't have done表示: 过去不必做某事, 但事实上做了。
 John went to the station
with the car to meet Mary, so she didn't need to walk back home.
约翰开车去车站接玛丽,所以她不必步行回家了。
 John went to the station with the car to meet Mary,
so she needn't have walked back home. 约翰开车去车站接玛丽,所以她本不必步行回家了。
(Mary步行回家,没有遇上John的车。)
典型例题
 There was plenty of time. She ___.
A.
mustn't have hurried  B. couldn't have hurried  C. must not hurry  D. needn't
have hurried
 答案D。needn't have done. 意为"本不必",即已经做了某事,而时实际上不必要。
 Mustn't
have done 用法不正确,对过去发生的事情进行否定性推断应为couldn't have done, "不可能已经"。 must not do
不可以(用于一般现在时)。


17. 名词性从句

  在句子中起名词作用的句子叫名词从句 (Noun
Clauses)。 名词从句的功能相当于名词词组,
它在复合句中能担任主语、宾语、表语、同位语、介词宾语等,因此根据它在句中不同的语法功能,名词从句又可分别称为主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。


1 引导名词性从句的连接词

 引导名词性从句的连接词可分为三类:
  
连接词:that,whether,if 不充当从句的任何成分)
   连接代词:what, whatever, who, whoever,
whom,
        whose, which.
   连接副词:when, where, how, why
  
不可省略的连词:
    1. 介词后的连词
    2. 引导主语从句和同位语从句的连词不可省略。
     That she was
chosen made us very happy.
     We heard the news that our team had
won.
 比较:whether与if 均为"是否"的意思。 但在下列情况下,whether 不能被if 取代:
1.
whether引导主语从句并在句首
2. 引导表语从句
3. whether从句作介词宾语
4. 从句后有"or not"
  
Whether he will come is not clear.
  大部分连接词引导的主语从句都可以置于句末,用
it充当形式主语。
  It is not important who will go.
  It is still unknown which
team will win the match.


2 名词性that-从句

1)由从属连词that引导的从句叫做名词性that-从句。
That只起连接主句和从句的作用,在从句中不担任任何成分,本身也没有词义。名词性that-从句在句中能充当主
语、宾语、表语、同位语和形容词宾语,例如:
  主语:That he is still alive is sheer luck. 
他还活着全靠运气。
  宾语:John said that he was leaving for London on
Wednesday. 约翰说他星期三要到伦敦去。
  表语:The fact is that he has not been seen
recently.   事实是近来谁也没有见过他。
  同位语:The fact that he has not been seen recently
disturbs everyone in his office.
       近来谁也没有见过他,这一事实令办公室所有的人不安。
 
形容词宾语:I am glad that you are satisfied with your
job.
       你对工作满意我感到很高兴。
2)That-从句作主语通常用it作先行词,而将that-从句置于句末,例如:
  It
is quite clear that the whole project is doomed to
failure. 很清楚,整个计划注定要失败。
  It's a pity that you should have to
leave. 你非走不可真是件憾事。
  
  用it作形式主语的that-从句有以下四种不同的搭配关系:
  a. It + be
+形容词+ that-从句
   It is necessary that…    有必要……
   It is important
that…    重要的是……
   It is obvious that…     很明显……
  b. It + be +
-ed 分词+ that-从句
   It is believed that…     人们相信……
   It is known to all
that…   从所周知……
   It has been decided that…   已决定……
  c. It + be
+名词+ that-从句
   It is common knowledge that…  ……是常识
   It is a surprise
that…   令人惊奇的是……
   It is a fact that…     事实是……
  d. It +不及物动词+
that-分句
   It appears that…      似乎……
   It happens
that…      碰巧……
   It occurred to me that…   我突然想起……


3 名词性wh-从句

1)由wh-词引导的名词从句叫做名词性wh-从句。Wh-词包括who, whom,. whose, whoever, what,
whatever, which, whichever等连接代词和where, when, how,
why等连接副词。Wh-从句的语法功能除了和that-从句一样外,还可充当介词宾语、宾语补语和间接宾语等,例如:
主语: How the book
will sell depends on its author. 书销售如何取决于作者本人。
直接宾语:In one's own home one
can do what one likes. 在自己家里可以随心所欲。
间接宾语:The club will give whoever wins
a prize. 
俱乐部将给得胜者设奖。
表语: My question is who will take over president
of the Foundation. 我的问题是谁将接任该基金会主席职位。
宾语补足语:She will name him whatever
she wants to. 她高兴给他起什么名字就取什么名字。
同位语:  I have no idea when he will
return. 
我不知道他什么时候回来。
形容词宾语:I'm not sure why she refused their
invitation.  我尚不能肯定她为什么拒绝他们的邀请。
介词宾语: That depends on where we shall
go. 
那取决于我们去哪儿。
2)Wh-从句作主语也常用先行词it做形式主语,而将wh-从句置于句末,例如:
 It is not
yet decided who will do that job. 
 还没决定谁做这项工作。
 It remains unknown when
they are going to get married. 
他们何时结婚依然不明。


4 if, whether引导的名词从句

1)yes-no型疑问从句
  从属连词if,
whether引导的名词从句是由一般疑问句或选择疑问转化而来的,因此也分别被称为yes-no型疑问句从句和选择型疑问从句,其功能和wh-从句的功能相同,
例如:
 主语:Whether the plan is feasible remains to be proved.
这一计划是否可行还有等证实。
 宾语:Let us know whether / if you can finish the
article before Friday. 请让我们知道你是否能在星期五以前把文章写完。
 表语:The point is
whether we should lend him the money. 问题在于我们是否应该借钱给他。
 同位语:They are
investigating the question whether the man is
trustworthy. 他们调查他是否值得信赖。
 形容词宾语: She's doubtful whether we shall be
able to come.  她怀疑我们是否能够前来。
 介词宾语: I worry about whether he can pass
through the crisis of his illness.  我担心他是否能度过疾病的危险期。
2)选择性疑问从句
 
选择性疑问从句由关联词if/whether…or或whethe…or not构成,例如:
  Please tell me whether / if
they are Swedish or Danish. 请告诉我他们是瑞典人还是丹麦人。
  I don't care whether you like
the plan or not.我不在乎你是否喜欢该计划。


5 否定转移

1) 将think, believe, suppose,
expect, fancy, imagine等动词后面宾语从句的否定词转移到主句中,即主句的谓语动词用否定式,而从句的谓语动词用肯定式。
  I
don't think I know you. 我想我并不认识你。
  I don' t believe he will
come. 我相信他不回来。
注意:若谓语动词为hope,宾语从句中的否定词不能转移。
  I hope you weren't ill.
我想你没有生病吧。
2) 将seem, appear 等后的从句的否定转移到前面。
  It doesn't seem that they
know where to go.
  看来他们不知道往哪去。
  It doesn't appear that we'll have a
sunny day tomorrow.
  看来我们明天不会碰上好天气。
3)
有时将动名词,介词短语或整个从句的否定转变为对谓语动词的否定。
  I don't remember having ever seen such a
man. 
  我记得从未见过这样一个人。 (not否定动名词短语 having…)
  It's not a place where
anyone would expect to see strange characters on the street.
 
在这里,人们不会想到在街上会碰上陌生的人。
 (anyone 作主语,从句中的谓语动词不能用否定形式。)
4)
有时状语或状语从句中否定可以转移到谓语动词前。
  The ant is not gathering this for itself
alone. (否定状语) 蚂蚁不只是为自己采食。
  He was not ready to believe something
just because Aristotle said so. (否定because状语)
他并不因亚里斯多德说过如何如何,就轻信此事。
 She had not been married many weeks when that
man's younger brother saw her and was struck by her beauty. (否定状语many
weeks) 她结婚还不到几个月,这个人的弟弟就看见她了,并对她的美貌着了迷。
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13. 句子的种类

(一)按使用目的可分为陈述句、疑问句、祈使句和感叹句。
1) 陈述句(Declarative
Sentences):说明一个事实或陈述一种看法。
  Light travels faster than
sound. 光比声速度快。  (说明事实)
 The film is rather
boring. 这部电影很乏味。
(说明看法)
2) 疑问句(Interrogative
Sentences):提出问题。有以下四种:
  a. 一般疑问句(General Questions):
    Can you finish
the work in time?
     你能按时完成工作吗?
  b. 特殊疑问句(W Questions; H
Questions):
    Where do you live? 你住那儿?
    How do you know that?
你怎么知道那件事?
  c. 选择疑问句(Alternative Questions):
    Do you want tea or
coffee?
     你是要茶还是要咖啡?
  d. 反意疑问句(Tag-Questions):
    He doesn't know
her, does he? 
     他不认识她,对不对?
3) 祈使句(Imperative
Sentences):提出请求,建议或发出命令,例如:
   Sit down, please. 请坐。
   Don't be
nervous! 别紧张!
4) 感叹句(Exclamatory Sentences):表示说话人惊奇、喜悦、愤怒等情绪,例如:
  
What good news it is! 多好的消息啊!
(二)句子按其结构可以分为以下三类:
1) 简单句(Simple
Sentences):只包含一个主谓结构句子叫简单句,例如:
She is fond of collecting stamps. 
她喜欢集邮。
(主)  (谓)
2) 并列句(Compound
Sentences):包含两个或两个以上主谓结构的句子叫并列句,句与句之间通常用并列连词或分号来连接,例如:
  The food
was good, but he had little appetite.
 (主)   (谓)     
(主)(谓)
  食物很精美,但他却没什么胃口。
3) 复合句(Complex
Sentences):包含一个主句从句和一个或几个从句的句子叫复合句,从句由从属连词引导,例如:
 The film had begun
when we got to the cinema.
      主句      
从句
 我们到达电影院的时候,电影已经开演了。
(三)基本句型(Basic Sentence
Patterns):英语中千变万化的句子归根结底都是由以下五种基本句型组合、扩展、变化而来的:
1)主 + 动(SV)例如:
  I
work. 我工作。
2)主 + 动 + 表(SVP)例如:
  John is busy. 约翰忙。
3)主 + 动 +
宾(SVO)例如:
  She studies English. 她学英语。
4)主 + 动 + 宾 + 补(SVOC)例如:
  Time
would prove me right. 时间会证明我是对的。
5)主 + 动 + 间宾 + 直宾(SVOiOd)例如:
  My mother
made me a new dress. 我母亲给我做了一件新衣裳。


1 祈使句结构

 
祈使句用以表达命令,要求,请求,劝告等。
1) 祈使句有两种类型,一种是以动词原形开头,在动词原形之前加do (但只限于省略第二人称主语的句子)。
    Take this seat.
    Do be careful.
 否定结构:
   Don't
move.
   Don't be late.
2) 第二种祈使句以let开头。
  Let 的反意疑问句
 a. Let's
包括说话者 
   Let's have another try,shall we / shan't we?
  = Shall we have
another try?
 b. Let us 不包括说话者
   Let us have another try,will you
/ won't you?
  = Will you please let us have another
try?
否定结构:
 Let's not talk of that matter.
 Let us not talk of that
matter.


2 感叹句结构

  感叹句通常有what, how引导,表示赞美、惊叹、喜
悦、等感情。
  what修饰名词,how
修饰形容词,副词或动词,感叹句结构主要有以下几种:
  掌握它的搭配,即掌握了感叹句的重点。
How +形容词+ a
+名词+       陈述语序   
How+形容词或副词+         陈述语序
What
+名词+            陈述语序
What+a+形容词+名词+        陈述语序
What+ 形容词+复数名词+      
陈述语序
What+ 形容词+不可数名词+      陈述语序
How clever a boy he is!
How lovely
the baby is!
What noise they are making!
What a clever boy he is!
What
wonderful ideas (we have)!
What cold weather it is!
感叹句的省略形式为:
What a
clever boy (he is)!
典型例题
1)___ food you've cooked!
A. How a
nice  B. What a nice  C. How nice  D. What nice
 答案D. 由于How
修饰形容词,副词;what修饰名词。且food为不可数名词,因此A,B 排除。C How + adj. 后面不能再加名词,因此只有D正确,其句型为What +
adj. +n. (不可数)
2)___terrible weather we've been having these days! 
A.
What  B. What a  C. How  D. How a 
 答案A. weather为不可数名词,B,D排除。C为how + adj.
后面不应有名词。只有A,符合句型What +形容词+不可数名词。
3) --- _____ I had!
  --- You really
suffered a lot.
A. What a time  B. What time   C. How a time   D. how
time
 答案A. 感叹句分两类:
     1:What + n.+主谓部分
     2:How + adj. / adv. /
v.+主谓部分。本题属第一种,但省略了bad,相对于 What a bad time I had! 这是个习惯用语。


3 强调句结构

  常考的强调句结构是it 引导的句子。
  It is
(was) 被强调部分+ that (who) + 句子其他部分。
  此结构强调的成分仅限于主语,宾语和状语。
   It is
from the sun that we get light and heat.
   It was not until I had read your
letter that I understood the true state of affairs.
典型例题
1) It was
last night ___ I see the comet.
A. the time B. when  C. that  D. which
 
答案C. 强调句的结构是: It +be +强调部分 + that (who) +
主谓句。 强调句的连词只有两个,that和who。当强调的部分是人,且为句子的主语时,才用 "who",其余用that。
 原句: My
father did the experiment in the lab yesterday evening.
 强调主语: It was my
father who did the experiment in the lab yesterday evening.
 强调宾语: It was the
experiment that my father did in the lab yesterday evening.
 强调时间: It was
yesterday evening that my father did the experiment in the lab.
(注意不用when)
 强调地点: It was in the lab that my father did the experiment
yesterday evening.
2)It is ten years ___ Miss Green returned to Canada.
A. that B. when  C. since  D. as
  答案C. 考点是连词用法。 本题易误选为A. that.
其实本句不是强调句。若是,去掉It  be… that还应是一个完整的句子。而本句去掉 'It is…that',只剩下ten years Miss Green
returned to Canada. 不成句。因此本句不是强调句。
  It is /was +时间+ since… 其中is
has been  was had been.


4 用助动词进行强调

  强调句还有一种类型,就是用助动词do (did,does)
强调谓语。
 She does like this horse. 她的确喜欢这匹马。
 Please do take care of
yourself. 千万保重。


5 反意疑问句

1) 陈述部分的主语是I,疑问部分要用 aren't
I.
  I'm as tall as your sister,aren't I?
2) 陈述部分的谓语是wish,疑问部分要用may
+主语。
  I wish to have a word with you, may I?
3) 陈述部分用 no, nothing,
nobody, never, few, seldom, hardly, rarely, little等否定含义的词时,疑问部分用肯定含义。
  The
Swede made no answer, did he / she?
  Some plants never blown (开花), do they
?
4) 含有ought to 的反意疑问句,陈述部分是肯定的,疑问部分用shouldn't / oughtn't +主语。
  He ought
to know what to do, oughtn't he? / shouldn't he?
5) 陈述部分有have to +v. (had to
+ v.),疑问部分常用don't +主语(didn't +主语)。
  We have to get there at eight tomorrow,
don't we?
6) 陈述部分的谓语是used to 时,疑问部分用didn't +主语或 usedn't +主语。
  He used to
take pictures there, didn't he? / usedn't he?
7) 陈述部分有had better + v.
疑问句部分用hadn't you?
  You'd better read it by yourself, hadn't
you?
8) 陈述部分有would rather +v.,疑问部分多用 wouldn't +主语。
  He would rather read
it ten times than recite it, wouldn't he?
9) 陈述部分有You'd like to +v.
疑问部分用wouldn't +主语。
  You'd like to go with me, wouldn't you?
10) 陈述部分有must
的疑问句,疑问部分根据实际情况而定。
  He must be a doctor, isn't he?
  You must have
studied English for three years, haven't you? / didn't you?
  He must have
finished it yesterday, didn't he?
11) 感叹句中,疑问部分用be +主语。
  What colours,
aren't they?
  What a smell, isn't it?
12) 陈述部分由neither… nor, either… or
连接的并列主语时,疑问部分根据其实际逻辑意义而定。
Neither you nor I am engineer, are
we?
13) 陈述部分主语是指示代词或不定代词everything, that, nothing, this,
疑问部分主语用it。
  Everything is ready, isn't it?
14) 
陈述部分为主语从句或并列复合句,疑问部分有三种情况:
 a. 并列复合句疑问部分,谓语动词根据邻近从句的谓语而定。
  Mr. Smith had
been to Beijing for several times, he should have been in China now, shouldn't
he?
 b. 带有定语从句,宾语从句的主从复合句,疑问部分谓语根据主句的谓语而定:
  He is not the man who gave us
a talk, is he?
  He said he wanted to visit Japan, didn't he?
 c.
上述部分主句谓语是think, believe, expect, suppose,
imagine等引导的定语从句,疑问部分与宾语从句相对应构成反意疑问句。
  I don't think he is bright, is
he?
  We believe she can do it better, can't she?
15)
陈述部分主语是不定代词everybody, anyone, somebody, nobody, no
one等,疑问部分常用复数they,有时也用单数he。
  Everyone knows the answer, don't they? (does
he?)
  Nobody knows about it, do they? (does he?)
16)
带情态动词dare或need的反意疑问句,疑问部分常用 need (dare ) +主语。
  We need not do it again, need
we ?
  He dare not say so, dare you?
  当dare, need 为实义动词时,疑问部分用助动词do +
主语。
  She doesn't dare to go home alone, does
she?
17) 省去主语的祈使句的反意疑问句,疑问部分用will you。
  Don't do that again, will
you?
  Go with me, will you / won't you ?
注意: Let's 开头的祈使句,后用shall
we?
  Let us 开头的祈使句,后用will you?
  Let's go and listen to the music, shall
we?
  Let us wait for you in the reading-room, will you
?
18) 陈述部分是"there be"结构的,疑问部分用there省略主语代词。
  There is something wrong
with your watch, isn't there?
  There will not be any trouble, will
there?
19) 否定前缀不能视为否定词,其反意疑问句仍用否定形式。
  It is impossible, isn't
it?
  He is not unkind to his classmates, is he?
20) must在表"推测"时,根据其推测的情况来确定反意疑问句。
  He must be there now, isn't
he?
  It must be going to rain tomorrow, won't it?
       
快速记忆表
陈述部分的谓语      疑问部分          
     I          aren't
I        
    Wish         may +主语    
     
no,nothing,nobody,never,  
few, seldom, hardly,    
肯定含义
rarely, little等否定
含义的词                       
ought to(肯定的)   
shouldn't/ oughtn't +主语  
have to+v.(had to+v.)  don't +主语(didn't +主语)
 
used to        didn't +主语或 usedn't +主语  
had better + v.     hadn't
you         
would rather + v.    wouldn't +主语       
you'd like to +
v.    wouldn't +主语       
must           根据实际情况而定      
感叹句中         be
+主语          
Neither…nor,
either…or 连接的根  
据其实际逻辑意义而定
并列主语                     
 
指示代词或不定代词
everything,that,      主语用it
nothing,this                   
  
并列复合句       谓语根据邻近从句的谓语而定
 
定语从句,宾语从句的
主从复合句       根据主句的谓语而定    
 
think,believe,expect,
suppose,imagine等引导  与宾语从句相对应的从句 
  
everybody,anyone,
somebody,nobody,no one  复数they, 单数he    
 
情态动词dare或need    need (dare ) +主语
dare, need 为实义动词     do
+主语        
省去主语的祈使句     will you?
Let's 开头的祈使句    Shall we?
Let
us 开头的祈使句   Will you?          
there
be   相应的谓语动词+there(省略主语代词)  
否定前缀不能视为否定词   
仍用否定形式      
must表"推测"   根据其推测的情况来确定反意疑问句
 


14. 倒装

14.1
倒装句之全部倒装
 全部倒装是只将句子中的谓语动词全部置于主语之前。此结构通常只用与一般现在时和 一般过去时。常见的结构有:
 1)
here, there, now, then, thus等副词置于句首, 谓语动词常用be, come, go, lie, run。
  There
goes the bell.
  Then came the chairman.
  Here is your letter.
 2)
表示运动方向的副词或地点状语置于句首,谓语表示运动的动词。
  Out rushed a missile from under the
bomber.
  Ahead sat an old
woman.
 注意:上述全部倒装的句型结构的主语必须是名词,如果主语是人称代词则不能完全倒装。
   Here he comes.    Away
they went.


1 倒装句之全部倒装

 全部倒装是只将句子中的谓语动词全部置于主语之前。此结构通常只用与一般现在时和 一般过去时。常见的结构有:
 1)
here, there, now, then, thus等副词置于句首, 谓语动词常用be, come, go, lie, run。
  There
goes the bell.
  Then came the chairman.
  Here is your
letter.
 2) 表示运动方向的副词或地点状语置于句首,谓语表示运动的动词。
  Out rushed a missile
from under the bomber.
  Ahead sat an old
woman.
 注意:上述全部倒装的句型结构的主语必须是名词,如果主语是人称代词则不能完全倒装。
   Here he
comes.   Away they went.


2 倒装句之部分倒装

 
部分倒装是指将谓语的一部分如助动词或情态倒装至主语之前。如果句中的谓语没有助动词或情态动词,则需添加助动词do,
does或did,并将其置于主语之前。
 1) 句首为否定或半否定的词语,如no, not, never, seldom, little,
hardly, at no time, in no way, not until… 等。
  Never have I seen such a
performance.
  Nowhere will you find the answer to this question.
  Not
until the child fell asleep did the mother leave the room.
 当Not
until引出主从复合句,主句倒装,从句不倒装。
注意: 如否定词不在句首不倒装。
   I have never seen such a
performance.
   The mother didn't leave the room until the child fell
asleep.
典型例题  
1) Why can't I smoke here?
  At no time___ in
the meeting-room
A. is smoking permitted  B. smoking is permitted
C.
smoking is it permitted D. does smoking permit
答案A.
这是一个倒装问题。当否定词语置于句首以表示强调时,其句中的主谓须用倒装结构。 这些否定词包括no, little, hardly, seldom, never,
not only, not until等。本题的正常语序是 Smoking is permitted in the meeting-room at no
time.
2) Not until the early years of the 19th century ___ what heat
is.
  A. man did know  B. man know  C. didn't man know  D. did man
know
 答案D.  看到Not until…的句型,我们知道为一倒装句,答案在C,D 中选一个。
 改写为正常语序为,Man did not
know what heat is until the early years of the 19th.
现在将not提前,后面就不能再用否定了,否则意思就变了。


3 以否定词开头作部分倒装

  如 Not only…but also,
Hardly/Scarcely…when, No sooner… than
  Not only did he refuse the gift, he
also severely criticized the sender.
  Hardly had she gone out when a student
came to visit her.
  No sooner had she gone out than a student came to visit
her.
典型例题
No sooner___ than it began to rain heavily.
A. the game
began      B. has the game begun
C. did the game begin    D. had the game
begun
答案D. 以具有否定意义的副词放在句首时,一般采用倒装句(谓语前置)。这类表示否定意义的词有never, seldom, scarcely,
little, few, not, hardly, 以及not only…but (also), no sooner…than, hardly… when
scarcely… when 等等。
注意:只有当Not only… but
also连接两个分句时,才在第一个分句用倒装结构。如果置于句首的Not only… but also仅连接两个并列词语,不可用倒装结构。
  Not
only you but also I am fond of music.


4 so, neither, nor作部分倒装

  表示"也"、"也不"
的句子要部分倒装。    
  Tom can speak French. So can Jack.
  If you won't go,
neither will I.
典型例题
 ---Do you know Jim quarrelled with his
brother?
 ---I don't know, _____.
 A. nor don't I care  B. nor do I
care  C. I don't care neither  D. I don't care also
答案:B.
nor为增补意思"也不关心",因此句子应倒装。A错在用 don't 再次否定, C neither 用法不对且缺乏连词。 D缺乏连词。
 
注意: 当so引出的句子用以对上文内容加以证实或肯定时,不可用倒装结构。意为"的确如此"。
  Tom asked me to go to play
football and so I did.
  ---It's raining hard.   ---So it
is.


5 only在句首要倒装的情况

  Only in this way, can you
learn English well.
  Only after being asked three times did he come to the
meeting.
  如果句子为主从复合句,则主句倒装,从句不倒装
  Only when he is seriously ill, does he
ever stay in bed.


6 as, though 引导的倒装句

  as / though引导的让步从句必须将表语或状语提前
(形容词, 副词, 分词, 实义动词提前)。
注意:
    1) 句首名词不能带任何冠词。
    2) 句首是实义动词,
其他助动词放在主语后。如果实义动词有宾语和状语,  随实义动词一起放在主语之前。
   Try hard as he will, he never
seems able to do the work
satisfactorily.
注意:
  让步状语从句中,有though,although时,后面的主句不能有but,但是 though
和yet可连用。


7 其他部分倒装

1)  so… that 句型中的so
位于句首时,需倒装。
   So frightened was he that he did not dare to move an
inch.
2) 在某些表示祝愿的句型中:
  May you all be
happy.
3) 在虚拟语气条件句中从句谓语动词有were, had, should等词,可将if 省略,把 were, had, should
移到主语之前,采取部分倒装。
  Were I you, I would try it again.
典型例题:
1) Not
until the early years of the 19th century___ what heat is  
A. man did know 
B. man knew  C. didn't man know  D. did man
know
答案为D. 否定词Not在句首,要求用部分倒装的句子结构。
2) Not until I began to work ___
how much time I had wasted. 
A. didn't I realize  B. did I realize  C. I
didn't realize D. I realize
 答案为B。
3) Do you know Tom bought a new
car?
 I don't know, ___.
 A. nor don't I care  B. nor do I care 
 C. I
don't care neither D. I don't care also
 解析:答案为B. 句中的nor引出部分倒装结构,表示"也不"。由 so,
neither, nor引导的倒装句,表示前一情况的重复出现。其中, so用于肯定句, 而 neither, nor
用在否定句中。
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